Question: What does Cognition refer to? - Answer: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating., Question: What is Thinking? - Answer: The manipulation of mental representations of information., Question: Define Concepts. - Answer: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people., Question: How are concepts formed "By Definition"? - Answer: Learning specific rules or features that define a concept., Question: How are concepts formed "By Prototype"? - Answer: Developing a mental image or "best example" of a category to compare new items to., Question: What is a Schema? - Answer: A broad mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, built from experiences., Question: What are Algorithms as problem-solving strategies? - Answer: Methodical, step-by-step, logical procedures that guarantee a solution., Question: What are Heuristics as problem-solving strategies? - Answer: Simpler thinking strategies or mental shortcuts that are generally faster but more error-prone., Question: What is Insight in problem-solving? - Answer: A sudden "aha!" moment—the realization of a problem's solution without a clear, strategy-based progression., Question: What is Confirmation Bias? - Answer: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms preexisting beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence., Question: What is a Mental Set as an obstacle to problem-solving? - Answer: The tendency to approach a problem with a mindset that has worked in the past, potentially preventing simpler solutions., Question: What is Functional Fixedness? - Answer: The inability to see a novel use for an object because of being stuck on its traditional function., Question: What did Kahneman and Tversky show about human judgment? - Answer: Decisions are often driven by fast, intuitive, error-prone heuristics rather than slow, deliberate logic., Question: What is the Availability Heuristic? - Answer: Estimating an event's likelihood based on how easily it comes to mind (vivid, recent, emotional events feel more common)., Question: What is the Representativeness Heuristic? - Answer: Judging likelihood by comparing to an existing prototype, often ignoring relevant statistical information (base rates)., Question: What is Anchoring Bias? - Answer: Tendency to be over-influenced by the first piece of information offered ("anchor") when making decisions., Question: What is Framing? - Answer: The way an issue is presented, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments., Question: What is Overconfidence? - Answer: The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of beliefs and judgments., Question: What is Belief Perseverance? - Answer: The tendency to cling to initial beliefs even after the basis for them has been discredited., Question: Define Language. - Answer: The system of spoken, written, or signed words and the rules for combining them to communicate meaning., Question: What is the accepted view (Linguistic Relativity/Weaker Version of Whorf's Hypothesis)? - Answer: Language influences thought, making it easier to notice and reason about concepts for which one has words., Question: Define Memory. - Answer: The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information., Question: What are the three stages of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Information-Processing Model of memory? - Answer: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM)., Question: What is Sensory Memory? - Answer: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information., Question: What is Iconic Memory and its duration? - Answer: A fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting a few tenths of a second., Question: What is Echoic Memory and its duration? - Answer: A fleeting sensory memory of auditory stimuli, recallable within 3 or 4 seconds., Question: What is Short-Term Memory (STM)? - Answer: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before storage or forgetting., Question: What is STM's capacity, as described by George Miller? - Answer: "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" chunks of information., Question: What is Long-Term Memory (LTM)? - Answer: The relatively permanent and seemingly limitless storehouse of the memory system., Question: How did Alan Baddeley update STM, and what is Working Memory? - Answer: Working Memory is an active workspace where the brain processes and manipulates information, not just a temporary holding shelf., Question: What is the core idea of Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart)? - Answer: The depth of encoding (shallow vs. deep) affects long-term retention., Question: What is Deep Processing? - Answer: Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of words, leading to the best long-term retention., Question: Name two effective encoding strategies. - Answer: Chunking, Mnemonics. (Also Spacing Effect, Testing Effect )., Question: What is the Spacing Effect? - Answer: Distributed study/practice yields better long-term retention than massed study (cramming)., Question: What is the Testing Effect?Question: What is the Testing Effect? - Answer: Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; self-testing is a powerful tool., Question: What is Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory), and what brain structure processes it? - Answer: Memory of facts and personal experiences that can be consciously known; processed by the hippocampus., Question: Distinguish Semantic Memory from Episodic Memory. - Answer: Semantic is general world knowledge/facts; Episodic is memory of personally experienced events., Question: What is Implicit Memory (Non-declarative Memory)? - Answer: Retention of learned skills or conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection., Question: What is Procedural Memory? - Answer: Memory for automatic skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike), involving the cerebellum., Question: What is Priming? - Answer: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory., Question: What is Context-Dependent Memory? - Answer: Easier recall of information in the same physical setting or context where it was learned., Question: What is the Serial Position Effect? - Answer: Tendency to best recall the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list., Question: What does Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve show? - Answer: Memory for novel information fades quickly and then levels off., Question: What is Encoding Failure as a cause of forgetting? - Answer: Inability to remember what was never encoded in the first place., Question: What is Retrieval Failure as a cause of forgetting? - Answer: Information is in LTM but cannot be accessed, often due to interference., Question: Distinguish Proactive Interference from Retroactive Interference. - Answer: Proactive: Prior learning disrupts new recall; Retroactive: New learning disrupts old recall., Question: What is Motivated Forgetting? - Answer: Unconsciously repressing painful or unacceptable memories., Question: What has Elizabeth Loftus's research shown about memory? - Answer: Memory is not a perfect recording but a highly malleable and constructive process., Question: What is the Misinformation Effect? - Answer: When misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event., Question: What is Source Amnesia (Source Misattribution)? - Answer: Attributing to the wrong source an event experienced, heard about, or imagined; a common cause of false memories., Question: Define Perception. - Answer: The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling recognition of meaningful objects and events., Question: Distinguish Bottom-Up Processing from Top-Down Processing. - Answer: Bottom-Up begins with sensory receptors and works up to integration (data-driven); Top-Down is guided by higher-level mental processes, drawing on experience/expectations (concept-driven)., Question: What is Transduction in sensation? - Answer: Conversion of one form of energy into another, transforming stimulus energies into neural impulses., Question: Define Absolute Threshold. - Answer: The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time., Question: Define Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference - JND). - Answer: The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time., Question: What does Weber's Law state?Question: What does Weber's Law state? - Answer: For an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage., Question: What is Sensory Adaptation? - Answer: Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation., Question: What is a Perceptual Set? - Answer: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another, influenced by experiences, assumptions, and expectations., Question: What are Gestalt Principles of perceptual organization? - Answer: Rules our brain automatically follows to organize sensory information into meaningful perceptions., Question: Explain Figure-Ground organization. - Answer: Organizing the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)., Question: List the four main Gestalt principles of Grouping. - Answer: Proximity, Continuity, Closure, and Similarity., Question: Define Depth Perception. - Answer: The ability to see objects in three dimensions, allowing judgment of distance, relying on binocular and monocular cues., Question: What is Retinal Disparity? - Answer: A binocular cue where the brain computes distance by comparing slightly different images from our two eyes., Question: Name two monocular cues for depth perception. - Answer: Relative Size and Interposition. (Also Linear Perspective, Texture Gradient, Light and Shadow )., Question: What is Perceptual Constancy? - Answer: Perceiving objects as unchanging (consistent shapes, size, lightness, color) despite changes in illumination and retinal images., Question: Define Intelligence. - Answer: The mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations., Question: What was Spearman's General Intelligence (g)? - Answer: One general intelligence factor underlying all specific mental abilities, identified via factor analysis., Question: What was Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences? - Answer: Intelligence is not a single entity, proposing eight independent intelligences (linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist)., Question: What are the three intelligences in Sternberg's Triarchic Theory? - Answer: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Intelligence., Question: What is Emotional Intelligence (EQ)? - Answer: The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions (a key aspect of social intelligence)., Question: What three principles must a good psychological test have? - Answer: Standardized, Reliable, and Valid., Question: What is Predictive Validity? - Answer: The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict., Question: Name a widely used intelligence test. - Answer: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)., Question: Distinguish Fluid Intelligence from Crystallized Intelligence. - Answer: Fluid: ability to reason speedily/abstractly (decreases with age); Crystallized: accumulated knowledge/verbal skills (increases with age)., Question: What is Heritability in intelligence? - Answer: The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that can be attributed to genes., Question: What is The Flynn Effect? - Answer: The finding that intelligence test scores have been rising steadily worldwide for the past century., Question: What is Stereotype Threat? - Answer: A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, which can depress test performance.,

Chapter 3: Cognition (ESSENTIALS)

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