When did India gain independence, and when was it officially proclaimed as a republic? - India gained independence on 15 August 1947 and was officially proclaimed a republic on 26 January 1950., What economic model did Jawaharlal Nehru adopt post-independence? - Nehru adopted a Mixed Economy and implemented Five-Year Plans, influenced by the Soviet Union., How did land dispossession play a role in early Indian economic development? - Land was taken for Public Sector infrastructure projects like dams, steel towns, industrial areas, and miningunder the justification of a “sacrifice for the nation”., What was the impact of the Land Acquisition Act? - It allowed the government to acquire land for private companies, leading to state control over land and rent collection., How did land dispossession change in the post-liberalization period? - The Special Economic Zone (SEZ) Act (2005) and New National Mineral Policy (1993) facilitated land acquisition for real estate and industrial projects, leading to mass displacement without proper rehabilitation or compensation., What is Thomas Hobbes' view on human nature and the necessity of the state? - Hobbes believed that people are naturally equal in body and spirit, which leads to constant competition and warfare. To escape this, individuals enter into a social contract and surrender liberties to a sovereign state (Leviathan, 1651)., How does Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s perspective on human nature differ from Hobbes’? - Rousseau argued that people are shaped by their environment and society. In the natural state, they lack knowledge to create conflicts, but in modern society, property rights and social inequality lead to despotism., What is the main idea in Rousseau’s Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men (1755)? - Rousseau distinguishes between natural/physical inequality and political/ethical inequality. The latter arises through agreements and social structures, particularly property rights and division of labor, which serve the powerful., What are human rights? - Human rights are fundamental rights that: - Limit state power to protect individual freedom. - Ensure personal autonomy. - Uphold human dignity. - Shape the rule of law. - Are inalienable and universal, What are some key natural rights? - Right to life, liberty, property, good governance, and freedom from oppression and slavery., What are the four fundamental freedoms according to the UN Charter (1945)? - Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear., Why was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) created? - It was a response to Nazi war crimes. The UN Charter was considered insufficient in addressing human rights violations., How many countries supported the UDHR in 1948? - 48 voted in favor, 8 abstained, and 2 did not vote., What are some key rights listed in the 30 articles of the UDHR? - - Right to life, liberty, and security. - No discrimination. - No slavery or torture. - Right to fair trial. - Right to nationality and asylum. - Freedom of thought, expression, and religion. - Right to democracy, education, and work, What was the Communist critique of the UDHR? - They argued that it did not sufficiently condemn fascism and Nazism, while supporters claimed that Article 13 (right to leave a country) addressed these concerns., What was the American Anthropological Association (AAA) (1947) critique of human rights? - The AAA argued that human rights were defined from a Western perspective, ignoring the cultural histories of colonized nations., What are the three cultural relativist principles proposed by the AAA? - 1. Individual personality is shaped by culture; thus, respecting individual differences means respecting cultural differences. 2. No scientific method exists to objectively compare cultures. 3. Universal human rights based on one culture's values reduce their applicability to all humanity., What was the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990) about? - It was created by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) as an alternative to the UDHR, arguing that the UDHR lacked cultural and religious context. It is based on Sharia law, but has been criticized for restricting freedom of religion., What are the main ideas of the Bangkok Declaration (1993) and ASEAN Values? - - National sovereignty and self-determination are prioritized over international human rights intervention. - Social harmony and economic well-being are valued over individual rights. - Collectivism and respect for authority take precedence over Western-style democracy.,

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